从新冠疫情中汲取教训——通过政治文化改革防止官僚决策失误

执行摘要

尽管新冠病毒的致死性在2022年降低，中国仍坚持实施严厉的封锁政策。这一策略不仅仅是公共卫生的决策，而是反映了根深蒂固的政治文化问题，如对指令的僵化执行、缺乏透明度以及责任缺失。这种文化导致了经济和社会的高昂代价。本文提出了一系列改革政治文化的建议，以促进适应性、包容性和基于证据的治理，确保未来的政策能够响应变化的环境，并真正以公众利益为导向。

背景

中国在2022年持续执行“清零政策”，不仅是一项公共卫生措施，更体现了官僚体系和政治文化的结构性问题。这些问题包括：

1. 权力过于集中：
• 决策集中在少数人手中，导致政策僵化。
• 地方官员因担心违背中央指令而不敢调整政策。
2. 象征性政策：
• 某些政策被视为政治合法性的象征，难以调整。
3. 压制异议和反馈：
• 吹哨人和批评意见经常受到惩罚，阻碍了创新和建设性批评。
4. 缺乏透明度：
• 政府沟通有限，降低了公众信任和政策执行的效率。
5. 短期政治优先级：
• 政策往往以短期政治收益为优先，而非长远社会利益。

这些特性不仅在中国存在，也反映了全球范围内许多国家治理中的共同挑战，其中控制和形象常常优先于适应性和包容性。

政治文化僵化的后果

• 经济效率低下：不合时宜的政策浪费资源并增加经济负担。
• 公众信任缺失：信息的不透明和缺乏公众参与削弱了对政府的信任。
• 创新受阻：僵化的体系抑制了创造性解决方案和适应性实践。
• 全球影响：不当的治理决策会扰乱国际关系和全球稳定。

政治文化改革的建议

1. 将政策调整视为治理的优势

• 当前问题：政治体系通常将政策变化视为失败的象征。
• 文化转变：将政策适应性视为良好治理的标志。
• 实施建议：
• 公共宣传因新证据调整政策的成功案例。
• 为提倡政策变更的领导者和官员提供法律保护。

2. 推动透明化治理

• 当前问题：缺乏公开性增加公众怀疑，妨碍合作。
• 文化转变：将透明度融入政治规范和实践中。
• 实施建议：
• 强制公开重大政策决策背后的数据和理由。
• 对领导者进行培训，确保其与公众定期且开放地沟通。

3. 鼓励建设性异议

• 当前问题：异议被视为对权威的威胁，而非资源。
• 文化转变：将异议常态化，视为政策改进的宝贵投入。
• 实施建议：
• 通过强有力的法律框架保护吹哨人。
• 建立独立机构定期审查政策并提出改进建议。

4. 将政策与政治合法性脱钩

• 当前问题：政策经常成为政治成功的象征，限制了灵活性。
• 文化转变：将政策效果与政治身份分离。
• 实施建议：
• 推动以结果为导向的治理文化，以实际成果而非形象为优先。
• 鼓励政治领导层将公众福祉置于短期声誉考量之上。

5. 建立参与式政治规范

• 当前问题：决策过程中经常排除利益相关者和公众。
• 文化转变：确立参与式治理为常态。
• 实施建议：
• 使用公民议会收集多元视角以协助重大决策。
• 将公众意见纳入政府决策流程。

6. 提倡跨学科决策

• 当前问题：政策常由有限的顾问群体决定。
• 文化转变：促进协作性的跨学科治理方法。
• 实施建议：
• 让科学、社会学、经济学等领域的专家参与政策制定。
• 鼓励政府、学术界和社会组织之间的协作。

7. 优先考虑长期治理目标

• 当前问题：治理通常优先考虑短期政治收益。
• 文化转变：将长期思维融入政治文化。
• 实施建议：
• 为优先考虑可持续性目标的政策建立问责机制。
• 奖励专注于系统性、长期改进的领导者和官员。

结论

中国2022年新冠疫情“清零政策”的经验表明，政治文化的改革迫在眉睫。通过推动适应性、透明性和包容性的治理实践，各国政府能够减少僵化政策的风险，并确保治理有效回应社会需求。实施这些改革将建立一个更具韧性的政治文化，平衡政治优先级与公众福祉之间的关系，为应对未来复杂挑战奠定基础。

 

Decontextualized Multiculturalism: The Harmful Effects of Superficial Inclusion in Singapore’s O and A-Level Music Syllabi

(This essay is generated by ChatGPT and then edited for adherence to the meaning I intended.)

The current GCE O-Level (6085) and A-Level (9753) music syllabi in Singapore reflect a superficial inclusivity by covering selected local Asian traditions (Chinese, Malay, Indian, and Javanese Gamelan) alongside Western classical music. While on the surface, this inclusion appears multicultural, it remains largely formalistic and devoid of the social, historical, and cultural contexts that give music its deeper meanings. This approach creates a superficially inclusive but decontextualized curriculum, which, rather than genuinely embracing cultural diversity, inadvertently limits students' understanding of the complexity and richness of the world’s musical traditions.

What is Contextually Inclusive Education? 

Contextually Inclusive education integrates the social, historical, and cultural backgrounds that shape the subject matter, fostering a deep understanding of its significance and relevance. In music education, a contextually inclusive curriculum would not only teach students the technical aspects of various musical forms but also explore the cultural and social contexts behind these forms, including not just historical but also modern and contemporary contexts and related musics. This approach helps students understand music as a living, evolving expression of identity, values, and community, rather than as isolated technical constructs. Contextually inclusive education thus encourages empathy, cross-cultural appreciation, and a more holistic view of the subject.

Decontextualized education, by contrast, presents diverse subject matter in a superficial or fragmented way, often focusing solely on technical analysis without fully addressing the broader cultural or historical contexts. In music, a decontextualized curriculum might include a variety of global musical traditions but largely reduce them to their structural elements—such as scales, rhythms, and melodies—without meaningfully discussing their meanings, functions, or evolution within specific communities, and may omit modern and contemporary musics in global context. This approach limits students’ understanding, treating music as a set of disjointed forms rather than as meaningful cultural expressions, and delimiting contexts that remain detached from the primary context students find themselves in—that is, the modern Asian context of contemporary Singapore. Decontextualized education risks reinforcing stereotypes and marginalizing contemporary Asian and global perspectives by failing to convey the depth and adaptability of global traditions.

Superficial Inclusion and Its Limitations

The syllabi largely focus narrowly on the structural and technical analysis of music, such as scales, rhythms, and forms, particularly in the Asian music traditions covered. This approach encourages students to view music through a detached lens, treating it as a series of formal components rather than a living cultural expression deeply embedded in social contexts. By emphasizing technical dissection, students learn to appreciate music at a surface level, missing out on the cultural, ritualistic, and symbolic significance that these musical forms hold within their communities​; for instance, the syllabus includes gamelan music, but without exploring its ceremonial importance in Javanese culture or its role in community bonding in detail, students risk perceiving it merely as a unique rhythmic structure.

In Western art music studies within the A-Level syllabus, the Eurocentric focus on Baroque, Classical, and Romantic composers suggests a hierarchy in musical value, marginalizing global and Asian contributions. By focusing on these established Western canons without integrating global composers who work within Western forms, such as Toru Takemitsu or I Wayan Gde Yudane, the syllabus fails to reflect the global nature of art music. Consequently, students are not only excluded from learning about the contributions of these global composers but may also internalize an implicit hierarchy that places Western art music above others in terms of cultural and artistic significance.

Superficial Inclusivity and Cultural Exclusion

This decontextualized inclusion creates a false sense of multicultural education, occluding significant exclusions in the curriculum. By presenting a narrow range of Asian traditions and largely reducing them to technical elements, the syllabi obscure the broader, dynamic nature of global music. This form of inclusion can be misleading, as it suggests a diversity that does not fully exist; the cultural meanings and historical dimensions of traditional Asian musics are left out, while diverse contemporary expressions of Asian and global music remain unrepresented. The implicit exclusion of these elements does more than omit information—it actively shapes a limited worldview in students, subtly reinforcing stereotypes that certain music traditions are static or unchanging, while canonic Western music remains the benchmark of artistic progress .

Such an approach is presents an ethnocentric perspective, whereby students may come to see traditional Asian and global musics as secondary or inferior to Western art music, particularly when the former are largely stripped of their cultural contexts. This perceived hierarchy alienates students from a comprehensive understanding of music as a universal cultural expression, instead reinforcing a “museum view” of global musics that treats them as artifacts rather than living art forms. A focus largely on the technical aspects of traditional genres like Chinese or Malay music can make students perceive these forms as frozen in time, overlooking how these musical expressions adapt to societal changes or incorporate modern elements, such as in contemporary Asian genres like K-pop and J-pop .

Exclusion and Cultural Stagnation

Furthermore, selective inclusion risks creating a stagnant music education system. Without exposure to the evolution and diversity within music traditions—such as contemporary global traditional musics from Africa, Latin America, and the Middle East—students miss out on a wide array of creative approaches and techniques that would otherwise broaden their musical abilities. The restricted focus on specific local traditions within the CMIO framework limits students’ understanding of music as a global phenomenon. This framework inadvertently narrows the definition of “Asian” music to local, pre-modern forms, while globally influential genres and contemporary composers go unacknowledged.

This limited exposure inhibits students' potential as they are not encouraged to explore and appreciate the rich diversity and adaptability within various musical forms worldwide. The lack of diverse perspectives in the syllabi ultimately hinders the development of empathy and cultural competency, essential skills in an interconnected world where music increasingly serves as a bridge across cultures .

Conclusion

The current O-Level and A-Level music syllabi while inclusive in appearance, are non-contextually inclusive, emphasizing a narrow set of traditions and largely technical analysis of Asian musical traditions, without meaningfully engaging with the cultural meanings embedded within these musical forms. This approach, rather than offering a genuine multicultural education, obscures significant exclusions, reinforcing a limited, hierarchical view of global music traditions. For Singaporean students, an education that fails to incorporate both traditional and contemporary global musics, as well as a deeper, possibly ethnographic study of music’s social and historical contexts, restricts their cultural empathy, adaptability, and creative growth. Addressing these issues with a broader, contextually inclusive curriculum is essential to nurturing globally aware, versatile musicians capable of appreciating and contributing to the world’s rich musical landscape.

Limitations of the O and A Levels Music Syllabi and Proposed Changes

Music education in Singapore has focused on Western canonic composers in the study of art music for Western performing forces, and traditional genres in the study of Asian musics. While these approaches are valuable, they overlook the dynamic nature of modern Asian music and the global perspectives that can enrich students’ understanding of music as a multifaceted cultural phenomenon. The following four essays explore why Singapore’s music syllabi should broaden to include not only local traditional Asian musics but also modern Asian and global genres beyond that of the local Chinese, Malay, and Indian populations.

These essays argue that broadening the music curriculum can address several limitations of the current syllabi, which often lack relevance to contemporary Asian cultures and reinforce a Eurocentric outlook. The essays make a case for understanding music in its social and historical contexts, recognizing the evolution of Asian identities in music, and fostering skills that prepare students for a global music landscape. 

(The following essays are auto-generated using ChatGPT and then edited, with an eye to adherence to the meaning I intend to convey. The reason for this is that I have a limited amount of time, and need to focus on research proper, but I feel that the commentary on the O and A level syllabi, which has retained weaknesses from 2015 when I left MOE, is necessary.)

1 Beyond CMIO

2 Beyond Formalism in Asian Music Teaching 

3 Beyond the "Traditional Musics Only" Model in Asian Music Teaching 

4 Beyond the Western Canon for Art Music Teaching 

Overview of Disadvantages of Current Music Syllabi 

1. Limited Relevance to Modern Asian Societies
   Traditional music-only in Asian music teaching feels outdated, failing to reflect contemporary culture and music students encounter daily.

2. Eurocentrism and Cultural Imbalance
   Emphasis on Western and not global composers in art music teaching reinforces a Eurocentric view, marginalizing Asian and global perspectives.

3. Narrow Skill Development
   The traditional music-only model in Asian music teaching fails to address modern techniques like electronic production, improvisation, and cross-genre composition, leaving students unprepared for contemporary careers in Asia.

4. Reduced Engagement with Contemporary Asian Identities
   Excluding modern Asian genres misses the dynamic transformation of modern Asian cultural identity in music, risking a stagnant view of Asian musical traditions.

5. Lack of Cross-Cultural Competency
   Limited exposure to hybrid and popular Asian genres restricts students' ability to engage with diverse musical styles and collaborate across Asia and globally.

Overview of Proposed Changes to Address These Disadvantages

1. Incorporate Modern Asian Music Genres
   Include popular Asian music (e.g., K-pop, J-pop) and modern art music from Asia, fostering cultural relevance and reflecting contemporary identities in the curriculum.

   • Impact: Enhances cultural relevance and engages students with music that incorporates Asian cultural elements they recognize, connecting their studies to everyday experiences.

2. Introduce Global Composers for Western Performing Forces
   Include works by Asian and other global composers who write for Western forces, blending Asian aesthetics with Western forms.

   • Impact: Balances the curriculum, addressing Eurocentrism and providing students with a nuanced view of how diverse cultural influences can coexist in modern music.

3. Expand Skills in Modern Asian Music Production and Composition
   Integrate training in skills relevant to modern Asian musics like electronic music production, popular songwriting, and digital composition, preparing students for varied music careers.

   • Impact: Broadens students' technical abilities, enabling them to adapt to a range of genres and professional contexts.

4. Encourage Ethnographic and Cultural Studies of Music
   Train students to study music in social and historical contexts, using ethnography to explore how modern genres reflect societal shifts.

   • Impact: Develops a well-rounded understanding of music’s cultural role, equipping students to see music as both art and cultural expression.

5. Enhance Cross-Cultural Collaboration Training
   Introduce collaborative projects and fusion genres, allowing students to explore creative connections across traditional and modern Asian musics.

   • Impact: Builds cross-cultural competency and prepares students for a global music landscape, making them more versatile and culturally aware musicians.

These changes encourage a more inclusive, relevant, and skill-diverse music education, better preparing Singaporean students for meaningful engagement with the modern music world.

Beyond the "Traditional Musics Only" Model in Asian Music Teaching within O and A Levels Curricula

Music education in Singapore often emphasizes traditional musics from local Asian ethnicities, honoring the cultural heritage of the nation’s diverse communities. However, focusing solely on traditional Asian music limits students’ understanding of the dynamic, evolving nature of Asian musical expressions. By including a broader range of modern Asian musics—such as popular genres and art music written for Western instruments—Singapore’s music education can offer a more comprehensive, relevant curriculum that prepares students for contemporary artistic contexts. Incorporating modern Asian musics enriches students’ musical literacy, reflects the changing nature of Asian identities, and fosters a well-rounded understanding of Asia’s diverse and vibrant music scene.

Disadvantages of Focusing Only on Traditional Musics

1. Limited Relevance to Contemporary Society and Culture
   Traditional Asian musics are invaluable, preserving cultural history and ethnic identities, yet they do not fully capture the realities and experiences of modern society. Today’s students are surrounded by a musical landscape that includes genres like K-pop, J-pop, Asian hip-hop, and Asian-inspired electronic music, as well as contemporary art music by Asian composers. A curriculum limited to traditional forms may feel outdated, disconnected from the music students encounter in their daily lives. Without exposure to modern genres, students may struggle to see the relevance of their musical education to contemporary Asian cultures.
   
2. Narrowed Perspective on the Transformation of Asian Musical Identities
   Asian music traditions have evolved over centuries, blending influences from within Asia and beyond. Focusing solely on traditional music can create a static view of Asian identities, suggesting that they are unchanging and disconnected from modern influences. By excluding modern genres, music education risks reinforcing outdated stereotypes, failing to represent the adaptability and diversity of Asian music today. For instance, popular Asian music genres often incorporate Western pop, jazz, and rock elements, while modern Asian art music composers draw on global influences, redefining what it means to be an “Asian” musician in the modern world.
   

The Benefits of Including Modern Asian Musics in the Curriculum

1. Reflecting Contemporary Asian Culture and Identity
   Modern Asian musics are powerful expressions of contemporary culture, capturing the concerns, aspirations, and identities of today’s Asian societies. K-pop, for instance, not only reflects Korean pop culture but also represents a larger Asian influence in the global music industry. Studying these genres gives students insights into the current social and cultural dynamics in Asia, from themes of globalization and technological influence to issues like gender representation and cultural pride. By understanding modern Asian music, students gain a more complete view of Asia’s changing cultural landscape.
   
2. Broadening Creative and Analytical Skills
   Exposure to both traditional and modern Asian musics fosters a broader skill set, allowing students to explore a variety of musical techniques and forms. Popular and art music genres often emphasize innovation, using unique production techniques, unconventional song structures, and varied rhythmic patterns. For example, Asian electronic music may incorporate traditional sounds in a modern context, while Asian art music often blends Asian aesthetics with Western orchestration. Learning to analyze and perform these genres challenges students’ creative boundaries, enabling them to think critically and innovatively as musicians.
   
3. Increasing Cultural Competency and Relevance
   Singapore is a multicultural society, and its students are likely to encounter a range of music styles throughout their lives. Familiarity with modern Asian music genres provides students with the cultural competency to engage with peers from different backgrounds, enhancing their global awareness. For instance, the increasing popularity of genres like J-pop and Asian hip-hop across Asia and beyond highlights the importance of cultural adaptability. By understanding these genres, students can connect more effectively with global audiences, making their skills more relevant in a diverse and interconnected music industry.
   
4. Preparation for Contemporary Music Careers
   A curriculum that includes modern Asian musics better prepares students for a wide range of career opportunities. Many of today’s music-related careers require proficiency in contemporary genres, including work in the entertainment industry, digital media, and international music festivals. Skills in popular music production, songwriting, and cross-cultural music collaboration are increasingly in demand. Including modern Asian musics in the curriculum ensures that students are prepared for the demands of a modern music career, making them versatile and competitive musicians on a global scale.
   

Conclusion

Incorporating modern Asian musics into Singapore’s music curriculum offers students a richer, more relevant education that reflects the realities of today’s world. While traditional music is crucial for preserving cultural heritage, a sole focus on it limits students’ understanding of contemporary Asian identities and the evolving nature of music. By embracing a broader range of modern Asian musics, Singapore’s music education can equip students with the skills, knowledge, and cultural awareness needed to thrive as musicians in a globalized, multicultural society. For Singaporean students, this inclusive approach to music education will not only broaden their perspectives but also foster a deeper appreciation for the dynamic, interconnected world of Asian music today.

Beyond the Western Canon for Art Music Teaching in O and A Levels Curricula

Music education in Singapore focuses on Western composers for the topics focusing on “art” music for Western performing forces, focusing heavily on composers from Europe and North America. While the study of this repertoire has its benefits, limiting students to this canon can create a narrow perspective on music’s diverse cultural heritage. Instead, incorporating works by Asian and other global composers who write for Western performing forces would broaden students’ understanding, promoting a more balanced and inclusive view of music. This approach not only reflects Singapore’s multicultural identity but also enhances students’ creative and analytical skills by exposing them to unique cultural influences and perspectives.

Disadvantages of Focusing Mainly on Western Composers

1. Reinforcement of Eurocentrism in Music Education
   A curriculum dominated by Western composers reinforces Eurocentrism, implicitly suggesting that European and North American composers set the standard for musical excellence. This bias marginalizes non-Western perspectives, positioning them as secondary or peripheral. Consequently, students may develop an unbalanced view of music history and theory, perceiving Western contributions as the pinnacle of musical achievement. This skewed perspective is particularly limiting in Singapore, a country with deep cultural ties across Asia and a population that values diversity.
   
2. Limited Exposure to Cultural Innovation and Diversity
   Western composers often draw upon a shared heritage of European harmonies, structures, and performance practices. While these are valuable, they do not represent the full spectrum of musical expression found around the world. By focusing solely on these composers, students miss out on the innovative ways global composers integrate unique cultural elements into compositions for Western instruments. For example, the works of Japanese composer Toru Takemitsu offers a fresh perspective on rhythm, melody, and instrumentation that reflects his cultural roots. This diversity enhances students’ creative potential, offering them a broader toolkit for expression and composition.
   
3. Narrowed Understanding of Contemporary Musical Practices
   Many Western music curricula emphasize Western composers from the Baroque, Classical, and Romantic periods, which limits students’ exposure to global composers from 18th-century Afro French composer Joseph Bologne to contemporary Asian composers. By studying mainly Western composers, students may struggle to relate to or recognize the relevance of art music in global contexts. In contrast, exploring global composers offers insights into how music can address and reflect global concerns, broadening students' analytical skills and helping them see music as a living global art form.
   

Benefits of Studying Asian and Global Composers for Western Performing Forces

1. Cultural Bridging Through Familiar Mediums
   When Asian and other global composers write for Western orchestras or ensembles, they create a bridge between cultures, incorporating traditional musics. For example, Indonesian composer I Wayan Gde Yudane incorporates gamelan influences into Western compositions, introducing students to Southeast Asian musical idioms within a familiar orchestral structure.
   
2. Increased Creative and Analytical Skills
   Composers from different cultures bring unique approaches to structure, harmony, and rhythm, challenging students to think beyond Western conventions. For example, Japanese composer Dai Fujikura’s works often reflect Japanese aesthetic principles, such as “ma” (the beauty of empty space). Engaging with these diverse approaches enhances students' analytical skills, as they learn to identify and appreciate the creative decisions that reflect different cultural values and philosophies. This exposure ultimately fosters a more adaptable, innovative approach to music.
   
3. Encouragement of Cross-Cultural Collaboration and Innovation
   Singapore is a global city with a rich cultural blend, and its music students are likely to collaborate with artists from various backgrounds. By studying Asian and global composers, students become familiar with different musical traditions and are better prepared for collaborative, cross-cultural work. This familiarity with diverse cultural practices not only fosters respect and understanding but also enhances students' capacity for innovation, as they learn to draw on various cultural resources to create new, original works. In a globalized music industry, this adaptability is a significant advantage.
   
4. Developing a Well-Rounded Global Perspective in Music
   Studying global composers who write for Western performing forces allows students to transcend cultural boundaries. This global perspective is especially valuable in a multicultural society like Singapore, where diverse cultural narratives coexist and interact. Exposure to global composers helps students understand that Western instruments and forms are not exclusive to Western composers but are tools that can communicate a wide range of cultural experiences and expressions. This perspective not only enriches their musical education but also broadens their worldview, fostering a sense of interconnectedness and shared humanity.
   

Conclusion

By incorporating the works of Asian and other global composers who write for Western performing forces, Singapore’s music education can cultivate a richer, more inclusive understanding of music. Focusing solely on Western composers limits students' exposure to the diversity and innovation found in global musical traditions, reinforcing Eurocentrism and potentially alienating students from their own cultural heritage. Expanding the curriculum to include global voices bridges cultural gaps, enhances students' creative and analytical skills, and prepares them for meaningful collaboration in a globalized world. For Singaporean music students, a well-rounded education that embraces the contributions of global composers offers a path toward a more informed, inclusive, and culturally relevant musical experience.

Beyond Formalism in Asian Music Teaching in O and A Levels Curricula

Music is a dynamic form of cultural expression that reflects the beliefs, values, and histories of its communities. For music students in Singapore, studying Asian music traditions without fully understanding their social and historical context can lead to a shallow interpretation that misses the broader meanings embedded within these traditions. By focusing solely on musical structure—analyzing scales, rhythms, and melodies through recordings—students risk reducing music to a mere arrangement of sounds, overlooking its cultural depth. Learning to think about music within its social and historical frameworks can deepen students’ understanding of the art form, with ethnography serving as a powerful tool to instill this contextual awareness.

Disadvantages of Focusing Solely on Musical Structure

1. Missed Cultural Nuance and Contextual Meaning
   When students focus only on musical structure, they miss the cultural and symbolic meanings that enrich the music. For instance, certain musical forms and practices in Asian traditions are inseparable from the ceremonies, rituals, or community events they accompany. Without contextual knowledge, students may not appreciate how a particular scale or rhythmic pattern is linked to a community’s beliefs or social hierarchy. This narrow approach limits students' capacity to fully engage with music as a mode of cultural expression.
   
2. Limited Understanding of Musical Purpose and Function
   Many Asian music forms serve specific social functions—whether celebrating a festival, marking rites of passage, or even facilitating healing. Structural analysis alone does not reveal these functions, so students may view music as a static product rather than an active, living tradition with distinct roles in society. As a result, they may overlook how music shapes, and is shaped by, the people who perform it and the occasions it accompanies.
   
3. Detachment from Music’s Transformation and Historical Background
   Every musical form has evolved in response to social and historical changes. For instance, gamelan music from Indonesia reflects both ancient spiritual practices and later influences from colonial history. By focusing solely on sound, students miss these historical layers and fail to grasp how music adapts and changes in response to external forces. This limited perspective risks fostering an incomplete understanding of music’s adaptability and resilience in preserving cultural identity.
   
4. Reduced Analytical Skills for Cross-Cultural Understanding
   Music is a powerful tool for intercultural understanding, but without learning its social and historical context, students may lack the ability to draw connections between different musical traditions. An approach focused solely on structure reduces music to technical elements, making it challenging for students to appreciate the parallels and contrasts between diverse musical traditions.
   

The Role of Ethnography in Inculcating Social and Historical Thinking

Ethnography, the systematic study of people and cultures through observation and participation, is an invaluable method for music students to explore the context of the music they study. Ethnographic training encourages students to go beyond sound analysis, prompting them to consider the people, places, and purposes behind each musical tradition. Through ethnography, students can develop a nuanced understanding of music that includes both its structural elements and its sociocultural dimensions.

1. Observation and Immersion in Real-Life Contexts
   Ethnography teaches students to observe music in its natural setting—such as community festivals, religious ceremonies, or informal gatherings—rather than in isolation from its cultural environment. By immersing themselves in these contexts, students can observe how music interacts with social dynamics, such as how particular groups respond to performances, how traditions are passed down, and how societal values influence musical interpretation. This experiential learning approach helps students appreciate music’s multifaceted role within a community, fostering a deeper understanding than structural analysis alone can provide.
   
2. Interviews and Participant Observation for Contextual Insight
   Engaging in ethnographic interviews with musicians, listeners, and cultural custodians helps students understand the motivations, beliefs, and challenges faced by those involved in a musical tradition. For example, a student studying Chinese opera might learn from a practitioner how modernization and changing social norms are affecting its traditional forms and functions. These firsthand insights help students understand that music is not just an art form but also a reflection of societal change, allowing them to connect the past with the present.
   
3. Development of Empathy and Cross-Cultural Sensitivity
   Ethnographic training promotes empathy by encouraging students to consider music from the perspectives of its practitioners and audiences. This practice nurtures cross-cultural sensitivity, as students learn to appreciate and respect different value systems, beliefs, and expressions embodied in music. Such empathy is vital for students in a multicultural setting like Singapore, where diverse cultures coexist and interact. It prepares them to engage respectfully and meaningfully with musical traditions outside their own.
   

Conclusion

While structural analysis remains an essential part of music education, it is incomplete without an understanding of the social and historical contexts that shape musical traditions. Singaporean music students who study Asian music through a purely structural lens risk overlooking the rich cultural meanings and historical narratives embedded within these traditions. By adopting an ethnographic approach, they can gain deeper insights into the societal and historical forces influencing music, fostering a well-rounded appreciation of its role in human culture. Ethnography not only enriches students’ understanding of music but also prepares them to become sensitive, informed, and globally aware musicians capable of engaging with the world’s diverse musical heritage.