Decontextualized Multiculturalism: The Harmful Effects of Superficial Inclusion in Singapore’s O and A-Level Music Syllabi

(This essay is generated by ChatGPT and then edited for adherence to the meaning I intended.)

The current GCE O-Level (6085) and A-Level (9753) music syllabi in Singapore reflect a superficial inclusivity by covering selected local Asian traditions (Chinese, Malay, Indian, and Javanese Gamelan) alongside Western classical music. While on the surface, this inclusion appears multicultural, it remains largely formalistic and devoid of the social, historical, and cultural contexts that give music its deeper meanings. This approach creates a superficially inclusive but decontextualized curriculum, which, rather than genuinely embracing cultural diversity, inadvertently limits students' understanding of the complexity and richness of the world’s musical traditions.

What is Contextually Inclusive Education? 

Contextually Inclusive education integrates the social, historical, and cultural backgrounds that shape the subject matter, fostering a deep understanding of its significance and relevance. In music education, a contextually inclusive curriculum would not only teach students the technical aspects of various musical forms but also explore the cultural and social contexts behind these forms, including not just historical but also modern and contemporary contexts and related musics. This approach helps students understand music as a living, evolving expression of identity, values, and community, rather than as isolated technical constructs. Contextually inclusive education thus encourages empathy, cross-cultural appreciation, and a more holistic view of the subject.

Decontextualized education, by contrast, presents diverse subject matter in a superficial or fragmented way, often focusing solely on technical analysis without fully addressing the broader cultural or historical contexts. In music, a decontextualized curriculum might include a variety of global musical traditions but largely reduce them to their structural elements—such as scales, rhythms, and melodies—without meaningfully discussing their meanings, functions, or evolution within specific communities, and may omit modern and contemporary musics in global context. This approach limits students’ understanding, treating music as a set of disjointed forms rather than as meaningful cultural expressions, and delimiting contexts that remain detached from the primary context students find themselves in—that is, the modern Asian context of contemporary Singapore. Decontextualized education risks reinforcing stereotypes and marginalizing contemporary Asian and global perspectives by failing to convey the depth and adaptability of global traditions.

Superficial Inclusion and Its Limitations

The syllabi largely focus narrowly on the structural and technical analysis of music, such as scales, rhythms, and forms, particularly in the Asian music traditions covered. This approach encourages students to view music through a detached lens, treating it as a series of formal components rather than a living cultural expression deeply embedded in social contexts. By emphasizing technical dissection, students learn to appreciate music at a surface level, missing out on the cultural, ritualistic, and symbolic significance that these musical forms hold within their communities​; for instance, the syllabus includes gamelan music, but without exploring its ceremonial importance in Javanese culture or its role in community bonding in detail, students risk perceiving it merely as a unique rhythmic structure.

In Western art music studies within the A-Level syllabus, the Eurocentric focus on Baroque, Classical, and Romantic composers suggests a hierarchy in musical value, marginalizing global and Asian contributions. By focusing on these established Western canons without integrating global composers who work within Western forms, such as Toru Takemitsu or I Wayan Gde Yudane, the syllabus fails to reflect the global nature of art music. Consequently, students are not only excluded from learning about the contributions of these global composers but may also internalize an implicit hierarchy that places Western art music above others in terms of cultural and artistic significance.

Superficial Inclusivity and Cultural Exclusion

This decontextualized inclusion creates a false sense of multicultural education, occluding significant exclusions in the curriculum. By presenting a narrow range of Asian traditions and largely reducing them to technical elements, the syllabi obscure the broader, dynamic nature of global music. This form of inclusion can be misleading, as it suggests a diversity that does not fully exist; the cultural meanings and historical dimensions of traditional Asian musics are left out, while diverse contemporary expressions of Asian and global music remain unrepresented. The implicit exclusion of these elements does more than omit information—it actively shapes a limited worldview in students, subtly reinforcing stereotypes that certain music traditions are static or unchanging, while canonic Western music remains the benchmark of artistic progress .

Such an approach is presents an ethnocentric perspective, whereby students may come to see traditional Asian and global musics as secondary or inferior to Western art music, particularly when the former are largely stripped of their cultural contexts. This perceived hierarchy alienates students from a comprehensive understanding of music as a universal cultural expression, instead reinforcing a “museum view” of global musics that treats them as artifacts rather than living art forms. A focus largely on the technical aspects of traditional genres like Chinese or Malay music can make students perceive these forms as frozen in time, overlooking how these musical expressions adapt to societal changes or incorporate modern elements, such as in contemporary Asian genres like K-pop and J-pop .

Exclusion and Cultural Stagnation

Furthermore, selective inclusion risks creating a stagnant music education system. Without exposure to the evolution and diversity within music traditions—such as contemporary global traditional musics from Africa, Latin America, and the Middle East—students miss out on a wide array of creative approaches and techniques that would otherwise broaden their musical abilities. The restricted focus on specific local traditions within the CMIO framework limits students’ understanding of music as a global phenomenon. This framework inadvertently narrows the definition of “Asian” music to local, pre-modern forms, while globally influential genres and contemporary composers go unacknowledged.

This limited exposure inhibits students' potential as they are not encouraged to explore and appreciate the rich diversity and adaptability within various musical forms worldwide. The lack of diverse perspectives in the syllabi ultimately hinders the development of empathy and cultural competency, essential skills in an interconnected world where music increasingly serves as a bridge across cultures .

Conclusion

The current O-Level and A-Level music syllabi while inclusive in appearance, are non-contextually inclusive, emphasizing a narrow set of traditions and largely technical analysis of Asian musical traditions, without meaningfully engaging with the cultural meanings embedded within these musical forms. This approach, rather than offering a genuine multicultural education, obscures significant exclusions, reinforcing a limited, hierarchical view of global music traditions. For Singaporean students, an education that fails to incorporate both traditional and contemporary global musics, as well as a deeper, possibly ethnographic study of music’s social and historical contexts, restricts their cultural empathy, adaptability, and creative growth. Addressing these issues with a broader, contextually inclusive curriculum is essential to nurturing globally aware, versatile musicians capable of appreciating and contributing to the world’s rich musical landscape.

Limitations of the O and A Levels Music Syllabi and Proposed Changes

Music education in Singapore has focused on Western canonic composers in the study of art music for Western performing forces, and traditional genres in the study of Asian musics. While these approaches are valuable, they overlook the dynamic nature of modern Asian music and the global perspectives that can enrich students’ understanding of music as a multifaceted cultural phenomenon. The following four essays explore why Singapore’s music syllabi should broaden to include not only local traditional Asian musics but also modern Asian and global genres beyond that of the local Chinese, Malay, and Indian populations.

These essays argue that broadening the music curriculum can address several limitations of the current syllabi, which often lack relevance to contemporary Asian cultures and reinforce a Eurocentric outlook. The essays make a case for understanding music in its social and historical contexts, recognizing the evolution of Asian identities in music, and fostering skills that prepare students for a global music landscape. 

(The following essays are auto-generated using ChatGPT and then edited, with an eye to adherence to the meaning I intend to convey. The reason for this is that I have a limited amount of time, and need to focus on research proper, but I feel that the commentary on the O and A level syllabi, which has retained weaknesses from 2015 when I left MOE, is necessary.)

1 Beyond CMIO

2 Beyond Formalism in Asian Music Teaching 

3 Beyond the "Traditional Musics Only" Model in Asian Music Teaching 

4 Beyond the Western Canon for Art Music Teaching 

Overview of Disadvantages of Current Music Syllabi 

1. Limited Relevance to Modern Asian Societies
   Traditional music-only in Asian music teaching feels outdated, failing to reflect contemporary culture and music students encounter daily.

2. Eurocentrism and Cultural Imbalance
   Emphasis on Western and not global composers in art music teaching reinforces a Eurocentric view, marginalizing Asian and global perspectives.

3. Narrow Skill Development
   The traditional music-only model in Asian music teaching fails to address modern techniques like electronic production, improvisation, and cross-genre composition, leaving students unprepared for contemporary careers in Asia.

4. Reduced Engagement with Contemporary Asian Identities
   Excluding modern Asian genres misses the dynamic transformation of modern Asian cultural identity in music, risking a stagnant view of Asian musical traditions.

5. Lack of Cross-Cultural Competency
   Limited exposure to hybrid and popular Asian genres restricts students' ability to engage with diverse musical styles and collaborate across Asia and globally.

Overview of Proposed Changes to Address These Disadvantages

1. Incorporate Modern Asian Music Genres
   Include popular Asian music (e.g., K-pop, J-pop) and modern art music from Asia, fostering cultural relevance and reflecting contemporary identities in the curriculum.

   • Impact: Enhances cultural relevance and engages students with music that incorporates Asian cultural elements they recognize, connecting their studies to everyday experiences.

2. Introduce Global Composers for Western Performing Forces
   Include works by Asian and other global composers who write for Western forces, blending Asian aesthetics with Western forms.

   • Impact: Balances the curriculum, addressing Eurocentrism and providing students with a nuanced view of how diverse cultural influences can coexist in modern music.

3. Expand Skills in Modern Asian Music Production and Composition
   Integrate training in skills relevant to modern Asian musics like electronic music production, popular songwriting, and digital composition, preparing students for varied music careers.

   • Impact: Broadens students' technical abilities, enabling them to adapt to a range of genres and professional contexts.

4. Encourage Ethnographic and Cultural Studies of Music
   Train students to study music in social and historical contexts, using ethnography to explore how modern genres reflect societal shifts.

   • Impact: Develops a well-rounded understanding of music’s cultural role, equipping students to see music as both art and cultural expression.

5. Enhance Cross-Cultural Collaboration Training
   Introduce collaborative projects and fusion genres, allowing students to explore creative connections across traditional and modern Asian musics.

   • Impact: Builds cross-cultural competency and prepares students for a global music landscape, making them more versatile and culturally aware musicians.

These changes encourage a more inclusive, relevant, and skill-diverse music education, better preparing Singaporean students for meaningful engagement with the modern music world.

Beyond the "Traditional Musics Only" Model in Asian Music Teaching within O and A Levels Curricula

Music education in Singapore often emphasizes traditional musics from local Asian ethnicities, honoring the cultural heritage of the nation’s diverse communities. However, focusing solely on traditional Asian music limits students’ understanding of the dynamic, evolving nature of Asian musical expressions. By including a broader range of modern Asian musics—such as popular genres and art music written for Western instruments—Singapore’s music education can offer a more comprehensive, relevant curriculum that prepares students for contemporary artistic contexts. Incorporating modern Asian musics enriches students’ musical literacy, reflects the changing nature of Asian identities, and fosters a well-rounded understanding of Asia’s diverse and vibrant music scene.

Disadvantages of Focusing Only on Traditional Musics

1. Limited Relevance to Contemporary Society and Culture
   Traditional Asian musics are invaluable, preserving cultural history and ethnic identities, yet they do not fully capture the realities and experiences of modern society. Today’s students are surrounded by a musical landscape that includes genres like K-pop, J-pop, Asian hip-hop, and Asian-inspired electronic music, as well as contemporary art music by Asian composers. A curriculum limited to traditional forms may feel outdated, disconnected from the music students encounter in their daily lives. Without exposure to modern genres, students may struggle to see the relevance of their musical education to contemporary Asian cultures.
   
2. Narrowed Perspective on the Transformation of Asian Musical Identities
   Asian music traditions have evolved over centuries, blending influences from within Asia and beyond. Focusing solely on traditional music can create a static view of Asian identities, suggesting that they are unchanging and disconnected from modern influences. By excluding modern genres, music education risks reinforcing outdated stereotypes, failing to represent the adaptability and diversity of Asian music today. For instance, popular Asian music genres often incorporate Western pop, jazz, and rock elements, while modern Asian art music composers draw on global influences, redefining what it means to be an “Asian” musician in the modern world.
   

The Benefits of Including Modern Asian Musics in the Curriculum

1. Reflecting Contemporary Asian Culture and Identity
   Modern Asian musics are powerful expressions of contemporary culture, capturing the concerns, aspirations, and identities of today’s Asian societies. K-pop, for instance, not only reflects Korean pop culture but also represents a larger Asian influence in the global music industry. Studying these genres gives students insights into the current social and cultural dynamics in Asia, from themes of globalization and technological influence to issues like gender representation and cultural pride. By understanding modern Asian music, students gain a more complete view of Asia’s changing cultural landscape.
   
2. Broadening Creative and Analytical Skills
   Exposure to both traditional and modern Asian musics fosters a broader skill set, allowing students to explore a variety of musical techniques and forms. Popular and art music genres often emphasize innovation, using unique production techniques, unconventional song structures, and varied rhythmic patterns. For example, Asian electronic music may incorporate traditional sounds in a modern context, while Asian art music often blends Asian aesthetics with Western orchestration. Learning to analyze and perform these genres challenges students’ creative boundaries, enabling them to think critically and innovatively as musicians.
   
3. Increasing Cultural Competency and Relevance
   Singapore is a multicultural society, and its students are likely to encounter a range of music styles throughout their lives. Familiarity with modern Asian music genres provides students with the cultural competency to engage with peers from different backgrounds, enhancing their global awareness. For instance, the increasing popularity of genres like J-pop and Asian hip-hop across Asia and beyond highlights the importance of cultural adaptability. By understanding these genres, students can connect more effectively with global audiences, making their skills more relevant in a diverse and interconnected music industry.
   
4. Preparation for Contemporary Music Careers
   A curriculum that includes modern Asian musics better prepares students for a wide range of career opportunities. Many of today’s music-related careers require proficiency in contemporary genres, including work in the entertainment industry, digital media, and international music festivals. Skills in popular music production, songwriting, and cross-cultural music collaboration are increasingly in demand. Including modern Asian musics in the curriculum ensures that students are prepared for the demands of a modern music career, making them versatile and competitive musicians on a global scale.
   

Conclusion

Incorporating modern Asian musics into Singapore’s music curriculum offers students a richer, more relevant education that reflects the realities of today’s world. While traditional music is crucial for preserving cultural heritage, a sole focus on it limits students’ understanding of contemporary Asian identities and the evolving nature of music. By embracing a broader range of modern Asian musics, Singapore’s music education can equip students with the skills, knowledge, and cultural awareness needed to thrive as musicians in a globalized, multicultural society. For Singaporean students, this inclusive approach to music education will not only broaden their perspectives but also foster a deeper appreciation for the dynamic, interconnected world of Asian music today.

Beyond the Western Canon for Art Music Teaching in O and A Levels Curricula

Music education in Singapore focuses on Western composers for the topics focusing on “art” music for Western performing forces, focusing heavily on composers from Europe and North America. While the study of this repertoire has its benefits, limiting students to this canon can create a narrow perspective on music’s diverse cultural heritage. Instead, incorporating works by Asian and other global composers who write for Western performing forces would broaden students’ understanding, promoting a more balanced and inclusive view of music. This approach not only reflects Singapore’s multicultural identity but also enhances students’ creative and analytical skills by exposing them to unique cultural influences and perspectives.

Disadvantages of Focusing Mainly on Western Composers

1. Reinforcement of Eurocentrism in Music Education
   A curriculum dominated by Western composers reinforces Eurocentrism, implicitly suggesting that European and North American composers set the standard for musical excellence. This bias marginalizes non-Western perspectives, positioning them as secondary or peripheral. Consequently, students may develop an unbalanced view of music history and theory, perceiving Western contributions as the pinnacle of musical achievement. This skewed perspective is particularly limiting in Singapore, a country with deep cultural ties across Asia and a population that values diversity.
   
2. Limited Exposure to Cultural Innovation and Diversity
   Western composers often draw upon a shared heritage of European harmonies, structures, and performance practices. While these are valuable, they do not represent the full spectrum of musical expression found around the world. By focusing solely on these composers, students miss out on the innovative ways global composers integrate unique cultural elements into compositions for Western instruments. For example, the works of Japanese composer Toru Takemitsu offers a fresh perspective on rhythm, melody, and instrumentation that reflects his cultural roots. This diversity enhances students’ creative potential, offering them a broader toolkit for expression and composition.
   
3. Narrowed Understanding of Contemporary Musical Practices
   Many Western music curricula emphasize Western composers from the Baroque, Classical, and Romantic periods, which limits students’ exposure to global composers from 18th-century Afro French composer Joseph Bologne to contemporary Asian composers. By studying mainly Western composers, students may struggle to relate to or recognize the relevance of art music in global contexts. In contrast, exploring global composers offers insights into how music can address and reflect global concerns, broadening students' analytical skills and helping them see music as a living global art form.
   

Benefits of Studying Asian and Global Composers for Western Performing Forces

1. Cultural Bridging Through Familiar Mediums
   When Asian and other global composers write for Western orchestras or ensembles, they create a bridge between cultures, incorporating traditional musics. For example, Indonesian composer I Wayan Gde Yudane incorporates gamelan influences into Western compositions, introducing students to Southeast Asian musical idioms within a familiar orchestral structure.
   
2. Increased Creative and Analytical Skills
   Composers from different cultures bring unique approaches to structure, harmony, and rhythm, challenging students to think beyond Western conventions. For example, Japanese composer Dai Fujikura’s works often reflect Japanese aesthetic principles, such as “ma” (the beauty of empty space). Engaging with these diverse approaches enhances students' analytical skills, as they learn to identify and appreciate the creative decisions that reflect different cultural values and philosophies. This exposure ultimately fosters a more adaptable, innovative approach to music.
   
3. Encouragement of Cross-Cultural Collaboration and Innovation
   Singapore is a global city with a rich cultural blend, and its music students are likely to collaborate with artists from various backgrounds. By studying Asian and global composers, students become familiar with different musical traditions and are better prepared for collaborative, cross-cultural work. This familiarity with diverse cultural practices not only fosters respect and understanding but also enhances students' capacity for innovation, as they learn to draw on various cultural resources to create new, original works. In a globalized music industry, this adaptability is a significant advantage.
   
4. Developing a Well-Rounded Global Perspective in Music
   Studying global composers who write for Western performing forces allows students to transcend cultural boundaries. This global perspective is especially valuable in a multicultural society like Singapore, where diverse cultural narratives coexist and interact. Exposure to global composers helps students understand that Western instruments and forms are not exclusive to Western composers but are tools that can communicate a wide range of cultural experiences and expressions. This perspective not only enriches their musical education but also broadens their worldview, fostering a sense of interconnectedness and shared humanity.
   

Conclusion

By incorporating the works of Asian and other global composers who write for Western performing forces, Singapore’s music education can cultivate a richer, more inclusive understanding of music. Focusing solely on Western composers limits students' exposure to the diversity and innovation found in global musical traditions, reinforcing Eurocentrism and potentially alienating students from their own cultural heritage. Expanding the curriculum to include global voices bridges cultural gaps, enhances students' creative and analytical skills, and prepares them for meaningful collaboration in a globalized world. For Singaporean music students, a well-rounded education that embraces the contributions of global composers offers a path toward a more informed, inclusive, and culturally relevant musical experience.

Beyond Formalism in Asian Music Teaching in O and A Levels Curricula

Music is a dynamic form of cultural expression that reflects the beliefs, values, and histories of its communities. For music students in Singapore, studying Asian music traditions without fully understanding their social and historical context can lead to a shallow interpretation that misses the broader meanings embedded within these traditions. By focusing solely on musical structure—analyzing scales, rhythms, and melodies through recordings—students risk reducing music to a mere arrangement of sounds, overlooking its cultural depth. Learning to think about music within its social and historical frameworks can deepen students’ understanding of the art form, with ethnography serving as a powerful tool to instill this contextual awareness.

Disadvantages of Focusing Solely on Musical Structure

1. Missed Cultural Nuance and Contextual Meaning
   When students focus only on musical structure, they miss the cultural and symbolic meanings that enrich the music. For instance, certain musical forms and practices in Asian traditions are inseparable from the ceremonies, rituals, or community events they accompany. Without contextual knowledge, students may not appreciate how a particular scale or rhythmic pattern is linked to a community’s beliefs or social hierarchy. This narrow approach limits students' capacity to fully engage with music as a mode of cultural expression.
   
2. Limited Understanding of Musical Purpose and Function
   Many Asian music forms serve specific social functions—whether celebrating a festival, marking rites of passage, or even facilitating healing. Structural analysis alone does not reveal these functions, so students may view music as a static product rather than an active, living tradition with distinct roles in society. As a result, they may overlook how music shapes, and is shaped by, the people who perform it and the occasions it accompanies.
   
3. Detachment from Music’s Transformation and Historical Background
   Every musical form has evolved in response to social and historical changes. For instance, gamelan music from Indonesia reflects both ancient spiritual practices and later influences from colonial history. By focusing solely on sound, students miss these historical layers and fail to grasp how music adapts and changes in response to external forces. This limited perspective risks fostering an incomplete understanding of music’s adaptability and resilience in preserving cultural identity.
   
4. Reduced Analytical Skills for Cross-Cultural Understanding
   Music is a powerful tool for intercultural understanding, but without learning its social and historical context, students may lack the ability to draw connections between different musical traditions. An approach focused solely on structure reduces music to technical elements, making it challenging for students to appreciate the parallels and contrasts between diverse musical traditions.
   

The Role of Ethnography in Inculcating Social and Historical Thinking

Ethnography, the systematic study of people and cultures through observation and participation, is an invaluable method for music students to explore the context of the music they study. Ethnographic training encourages students to go beyond sound analysis, prompting them to consider the people, places, and purposes behind each musical tradition. Through ethnography, students can develop a nuanced understanding of music that includes both its structural elements and its sociocultural dimensions.

1. Observation and Immersion in Real-Life Contexts
   Ethnography teaches students to observe music in its natural setting—such as community festivals, religious ceremonies, or informal gatherings—rather than in isolation from its cultural environment. By immersing themselves in these contexts, students can observe how music interacts with social dynamics, such as how particular groups respond to performances, how traditions are passed down, and how societal values influence musical interpretation. This experiential learning approach helps students appreciate music’s multifaceted role within a community, fostering a deeper understanding than structural analysis alone can provide.
   
2. Interviews and Participant Observation for Contextual Insight
   Engaging in ethnographic interviews with musicians, listeners, and cultural custodians helps students understand the motivations, beliefs, and challenges faced by those involved in a musical tradition. For example, a student studying Chinese opera might learn from a practitioner how modernization and changing social norms are affecting its traditional forms and functions. These firsthand insights help students understand that music is not just an art form but also a reflection of societal change, allowing them to connect the past with the present.
   
3. Development of Empathy and Cross-Cultural Sensitivity
   Ethnographic training promotes empathy by encouraging students to consider music from the perspectives of its practitioners and audiences. This practice nurtures cross-cultural sensitivity, as students learn to appreciate and respect different value systems, beliefs, and expressions embodied in music. Such empathy is vital for students in a multicultural setting like Singapore, where diverse cultures coexist and interact. It prepares them to engage respectfully and meaningfully with musical traditions outside their own.
   

Conclusion

While structural analysis remains an essential part of music education, it is incomplete without an understanding of the social and historical contexts that shape musical traditions. Singaporean music students who study Asian music through a purely structural lens risk overlooking the rich cultural meanings and historical narratives embedded within these traditions. By adopting an ethnographic approach, they can gain deeper insights into the societal and historical forces influencing music, fostering a well-rounded appreciation of its role in human culture. Ethnography not only enriches students’ understanding of music but also prepares them to become sensitive, informed, and globally aware musicians capable of engaging with the world’s diverse musical heritage.

Beyond CMIO in O and A Levels Music

In an increasingly globalized world, music serves as a powerful bridge, connecting cultures and fostering understanding among diverse groups. For music students in Singapore, a nation known for its multicultural heritage and global outlook, studying only local Asian music traditions could restrict their potential for personal growth and limit their ability to engage with the broader musical landscape. A comprehensive education that includes world music not only broadens students’ perspectives but also equips them to understand and appreciate diverse global viewpoints, making them more versatile musicians and culturally aware individuals.

Benefits of a Broader Musical Education

1. Cultural Awareness and Empathy
   Engaging with a wide array of musical traditions helps students develop a deep understanding and appreciation for the diversity of human expression. By studying world music, students encounter a spectrum of cultural contexts, artistic techniques, and philosophical concepts behind various musical practices. This cultural awareness fosters empathy, as students learn about the social, historical, and political backgrounds that shape musical traditions worldwide.
   
2. Enhanced Musical Skill and Creativity
   Exposure to diverse musical systems, scales, rhythms, and improvisational styles expands students' technical and creative capabilities. For instance, learning the complex rhythmic structures of African drumming, the modal systems of Middle Eastern music, or the unique tuning systems of Indonesian gamelan can inspire innovative approaches in students' own musical creations. This versatility strengthens their technical foundation and encourages creative synthesis across genres, setting them apart as adaptable and innovative musicians.
   
3. Preparation for a Global Career
   As Singapore is a hub for international business and the arts, many music students will likely engage with global audiences or pursue careers that involve collaboration across cultures. Knowledge of world music positions them to connect more meaningfully with international peers and audiences, increasing their employability and enriching their professional lives. Without this broader exposure, students may find themselves unprepared to understand or effectively engage with global musical contexts.
   

Disadvantages of Focusing Solely on Local Asian Music

1. Limited Perspective on Cultural Expression
   While Singapore's local Asian music traditions are undeniably rich and valuable, a sole focus on these traditions risks creating a narrow view of music. Local musics, such as Chinese, Malay, and Indian traditions, offer deep insights but only reflect a fraction of the world’s diverse musical landscape. Without a broader perspective, students may come to view music through a limited lens, potentially reinforcing ethnocentric views and reducing their ability to appreciate music as a global phenomenon.
   
2. Missed Opportunities for Creative Growth
   Restricting studies to local music traditions can limit students' exposure to alternative musical practices that spark creative growth. In an age where musical fusion and innovation drive the arts, a narrow focus on local and not other global traditional musics may stifle students' creative potential.
   
3. Reduced Flexibility and Adaptability in a Globalized World
   Musicians today often find themselves collaborating with artists from different cultures and backgrounds. Students who have only studied local Asian musics may lack the adaptability and openness required to engage successfully in such environments. This limitation could hinder their ability to navigate diverse cultural contexts, reducing their effectiveness as communicators and collaborators in a globalized arts scene.
   
4. Risk of Stagnation in Music Education
   By not integrating world music into the curriculum, Singaporean music education risks becoming stagnant. Music is an evolving art form, and studying a diverse range of traditional musics encourages educational institutions to innovate and stay relevant. Without this global outlook, music education may fall behind international standards, limiting students' competitiveness and potentially discouraging them from pursuing music as a lifelong career.
   

Conclusion

While local Asian music traditions are an essential part of Singapore’s cultural identity and musical education, an exclusively local focus limits students’ potential in an interconnected world. By embracing a curriculum that includes global traditional musics, Singaporean music students can develop a richer, more balanced understanding of music, honing skills that prepare them for global careers and enabling them to foster cross-cultural appreciation and empathy. In a world where boundaries are increasingly blurred, a global perspective on music is not only beneficial but essential, equipping students to become versatile, thoughtful, and culturally aware musicians capable of bridging divides and celebrating diversity. 

Arguing that there is no "East versus West" amounts to Color Blindness over Black versus White

[ChatGPT prompt: Write an essay explaining why arguing that there is no east versus west, is the same as arguing that there is no black and white racial identities. It is important to recognize the asymmetry between the two pairs of terms whereby one side is privileged both historically and in the present and linked to the colonialism of the past, whereas the other is underprivileged both historically and in the present and linked to the formerly colonized, who is often at risk of neocolonialism. The erasure of difference, while well intended in that it's meant to counter stereotypes, actually ends up erasing that very real material difference of cultural asymmetry, and therefore is a denial of colonialism and neocolonialism. Just because the east has been the target stereotyping doesn't mean that it is not a meaningful, internally-diverse cultural assemblage today, just as black stereotypes doesn't mean that there is no collective of black identities. Similarly just because the so-called west is a broad category, doesn't mean that it fails to pertain to a group of people who enjoy common advantages; the broadness of the category of white people doesn't mean that there's no such thing as white people.]

Arguing that there is no distinction between "East versus West" is conceptually similar to arguing that there is no distinction between "Black versus White" in racial identities. Both arguments, while potentially rooted in a desire to challenge stereotypes and promote equality, ultimately erase the historical and present-day asymmetry between privileged and underprivileged groups. These erasures deny the cultural, political, and material impacts of colonialism and neocolonialism that continue to shape the lives and identities of people today.

The relationship between East and West, much like the relationship between Black and White, is not merely a set of abstract categories, but is historically rooted in structures of power and domination. The West, particularly in the form of European empires and later the United States, historically occupied the position of the colonizer. Through colonialism, the West exerted control over large portions of the world, particularly in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. This history created material differences in wealth, power, and cultural dominance that persist to this day. The East, on the other hand, was often relegated to the position of the colonized or the "other," its people seen as exotic or inferior, and its resources exploited.

Similarly, the racial divide between Black and White is not simply a social construct, but one deeply rooted in historical processes of slavery, segregation, and systemic racism. White people, particularly in the West, have historically occupied positions of privilege and power, whereas Black people have often been marginalized, oppressed, and excluded. These racial dynamics were also shaped by colonialism, which created a racial hierarchy that placed Europeans and their descendants at the top.

To argue that these categories no longer matter or should be erased misses the deep historical and material differences between them. The West is not just a geographic label but a set of cultural and political structures that continue to shape global power relations. Western countries continue to enjoy significant economic and military advantages, as well as cultural hegemony, through media, education, and international institutions. This power dynamic is mirrored in racial relations, where whiteness has historically been associated with privilege, while Blackness has been linked to subjugation.

Erasing these differences, while seemingly promoting equality, risks denying the very real consequences of colonialism and neocolonialism. Neocolonialism refers to the ongoing economic and political dominance of former colonial powers over their former colonies. Many countries in the Global South, particularly in Africa and Asia, continue to experience the consequences of colonialism through economic dependency, debt, and political instability. Similarly, Black people, particularly in Western societies, continue to face systemic racism, economic inequality, and social marginalization, despite efforts toward racial equality.

The argument that there is no East versus West or Black versus White overlooks the fact that these categories are not only about stereotypes but also about power. While the East has often been the target of stereotyping and cultural exoticization, it remains a meaningful cultural and political entity. Eastern societies, such as China, Japan, and India, have distinct histories, traditions, and contributions to global civilization. To erase the East-West distinction is to erase these rich cultural legacies, as well as the ongoing struggles of Eastern countries to assert their sovereignty in a world still dominated by Western powers.

Similarly, while Black people have been subjected to harmful stereotypes, Black identities remain a powerful and meaningful aspect of the global cultural and political landscape. From the African diaspora to movements for Black liberation and empowerment, Blackness is not a monolith but a vibrant and diverse set of experiences and identities. To argue that there is no such thing as Black or White risks erasing the ongoing struggles for racial justice, as well as the distinct cultural contributions of Black communities.

In both cases, erasing difference is a denial of history and of the present realities of inequality. Just because the category of "East" is broad and has been the subject of stereotyping does not mean it fails to represent a meaningful cultural and political assemblage. Similarly, just because the category of "West" is broad does not mean it fails to represent a group of people who enjoy common advantages rooted in colonialism and continued dominance.

The same holds true for racial categories. Just because "White" is a broad category encompassing people from various European backgrounds does not mean that whiteness is not a real social identity associated with privilege. The broadness of the category of "White" does not negate the fact that White people, particularly in Western societies, enjoy systemic advantages. Likewise, the diversity of Black identities does not mean that there are no such things as Black people or that Blackness has no meaning in the fight against racism and the quest for justice.

In conclusion, arguing that there is no East versus West, or no Black versus White, erases the historical and material differences that continue to shape global power dynamics and racial identities. While such arguments may be well-intentioned in their efforts to challenge stereotypes, they ultimately deny the ongoing legacies of colonialism, neocolonialism, and systemic racism. Recognizing these differences is essential to addressing inequality and fostering genuine understanding across cultural and racial divides.

Call for manuscripts: Teaching Global Music History: A Resource Book (edited volume)

Chapter proposals based on a syllabus, lesson plan, or essay are sought for consideration for inclusion in a volume on global music history pedagogy, the book proposal of which is currently under preparation for an interested Routledge editor. Published material will be considered but may have to be revised for the book. Chapter proposals on global, diasporic (African American etc.), and Indigenous music history (including those with a focus on popular, symphonic/art, or avant-garde/modernist music) are welcomed.

This would be a teaching resource book that is distinct from more purely academic considerations of global music history. The volume would be parallel to many of the current teaching resources available for global history beyond music studies. See below for an example:

https://www.routledge.com/Teaching-World-History-A-Resource-Book-A-Resource-Book/Roupp/p/book/9781563244209?gad_source=1&gclid=Cj0KCQjwmOm3BhC8ARIsAOSbapUT56Lx25aJXHrBZ-Vu_1z5qxNgbr_dxT9GGSUo1PCB5zk7toCb4K4aAm4aEALw_wcB 

Chapters fall within three sections in the book: 

1. course design, with syllabus (recommended 2000-9000 words including syllabus)
2. essay on a key concept, issue, topic, or geography/era, from either an academic or pedagogical perspective (no syllabus or lesson plan) (recommended 5000-9000 words)
3. pedagogical method, with lesson plan (recommended 2000-9000 words including lesson plan)

Chapters from a variety of pedagogical traditions will be considered, including 1) global music history, 2) historical ethnomusicology, and 3) historical musicologies conducted in different languages in different parts of the world. 

I would greatly appreciate it if you could recommend this project to those based outside of Euro North America who may be interested in this project. Note that chapters should be written in the English language.

Submission. Pls send the following materials to gmhpedagogy@gmail.com by Dec 31, 2024:

1. A chapter proposal of 100-150 words, along with an attached document related to your chapter, which may be a syllabus, a lesson plan, a document distributed to students, or a student assignment etc. Indicate which section of the book your chapter falls under: 1) course design, with syllabus, 2) essay on a key concept, issue, topic, or geography/era, from either an academic or pedagogical perspective (no syllabus or lesson plan), or 3) pedagogical method, with lesson plan.
2. Brief biography including experience teaching global music history.

Incomplete materials may affect consideration of the proposals.

The completed book proposal is anticipated to undergo peer review at Routledge.

Submission date of the full chapter is anticipated to be December 2026.

About the editor: Gavin SK Lee is incoming Senior Lecturer at University of Sydney and previously taught at Soochow University, China for 9 years. He researches and teaches global, Sinophone, and LGBTQ+ music history.

Do Village Musicians Want Chinese Global Hegemony When They Say “Minzu”? The Problem of Conflating Ethnicity and Nation in Translating Both as Minzu

Due to the simultaneous translation of both "nation" and "ethnicity" as minzu "民族", conceptual issues have arisen. This problem is primarily related to the different historical origins of the concepts of "nation" and "ethnicity" in the West. The meaning of minzu as "nation" originates from the 19th-century German concept of the ethnic nation (Volk in German), referring to people with a common ancestry, territory, language, and culture. This meaning was later influenced by Soviet-era usage, where "nationalities" referred to the peoples of smaller states with a specific territory. In contrast, the meaning of minzu as "ethnicity" emerged after World War II when the term "race" (种族) was largely replaced by "ethnicity" in the West. "Ethnicity" refers to people with a common ancestry, language, and culture, without the concept of territory, which is the main difference between "nation" and "ethnicity." (Race is a scientific biological concept that does not include culture and language and is associated with Eurocentric racial discrimination.)

In translation, a certain error clearly occurred, as "nation" was equated with "ethnicity" when translated as minzu. Due to this confusion, minzu refers both to "nation," built according to the 19th-century German model, and to China's fifty-six ethnic groups (including the Han), though the former usage is now considered outdated in academic circles. Some Chinese scholars prefer to use zuqun "族群" to correctly translate "ethnic group" and distinguish it from minzu as "nation." Another related issue with the term minzu is that the Chinese language does not distinguish between singular and plural forms. Does minzu refer to 56 ethnic identities (plural ethnic groups) or to the Han (a singular ethnic group)? The result of conflating the two is that the former is often simplified into the latter.

Because of the reasons mentioned above, the term minzu inherently carries unavoidable ambiguity, as it simultaneously means both ethnic group and nation. Furthermore, there is a distinction between national identity and nationalism as a political ideology. However, the usage in Chinese is not very clear, as minzu is often used without specifying whether it refers to national identity (民族身份) or nationalism (民族主义). The colloquial usage of minzu tends to lean toward the meaning of nationalism, and many people interpret minzu as nationalism. Nevertheless, the term still retains an inescapable ambiguity. For example, anthropologists and ethnomusicologists still insist that minzu refers to the 56 ethnic groups and remain distant from Han chauvinism. From this perspective, what is meant is a civic national identity of 56 ethnic groups, not a (singular) ethnic nation in the German sense. Village musicians are more likely to be interested in Han Chinese or minority ethnic identity rather than the global hegemonic mindset in Chinese nationalism.

The academic usage of minzu encompasses even more meanings. In 1989, Chinese anthropologist Fei Xiaotong proposed the widely recognized "pluralistic unity" theory, explaining the integration and differentiation between the Han and minority ethnic groups over three thousand years, thus placing the two concepts of "nation" and "ethnicity" in a dialectical relationship, expressed through his often-quoted phrase, "You are in me, and I am in you." Adding to the confusion, minzu is also used in the term "ethnomusicology" minzu yinyue xue. However, in the context of Western ethnomusicology, the "minzu" in "ethnomusicology" is interpreted as "people" (ethnos) rather than "ethnic group." (See Aga Zuoshi, “The ‘Minzu’ Conjecture: Anthropological Study of Ethnicity in Post-Mao China,” cArgo: Revue internationale d’anthropologie culturelle & sociale, no. 8 (2018): 83–108.)

Chinese scholars using the term minzu should reconsider what exactly they wish to convey.

由于“nation”和“ethnicity”同时被翻译为”民族”，这导致了概念上的问题。这个问题首先与“nation”和“ethnicity”两个概念在欧美不同历史时期的来源有关。“民族”作为 “nation”的含义，源自19世纪德国“民族国家”的概念（德文Volk），意指具有共同血统、领土、语言和文化的人民，这个意义后来也受到了苏联时期用法的影响，当时苏联的“少数民族”其实是联邦小国的人民，因此这些少数民族经常有具体的领土观念。而“民族”作为“ethnicity”的含义，则源自二战后“种族”（race）一词在欧美被“ethnicity”取代的普及，ethnicity意指具有共同血统、语言和文化的人民，不附有领土概念，这是nation和ethnicity之间最大的差别。（Race是科学生物概念，不包含文化和语言，附有欧洲中心主义中的种族歧视。）

在翻译过程中，显然出现了某种误差，因为nation在翻译为”民族”时被等同于ethnicity。由于这种混淆，民族一词既指根据19世纪德国模式构建的“民族国家”nation/Volk，也指中国的五十六个族群（包括汉族），但前一种用法现在在学术界被视为过时。一些中国学者更倾向于使用“族群”来正确翻译“ethnic group”，以区分“民族”为nation。“民族”一词的另一个相关问题是中文词汇单复数形式并无区分，“民族”指的是56个族群身份（plural ethnic groups)，还是1个汉族(singular ethnic group)？将二者混为一谈的结果是前者被简化为后者。

由于上述原因，“民族”一词在使用时总存在不可避免的模糊性，因为它同时意味着族群和“民族国家”nation。此外，民族认同与作为政治意识形态的民族主义之间也存在区别。然而，中文用法并不十分清晰，因为”民族”常常单独使用，而未说明具体指的是共同民族身份还是民族主义。“民族”一词的口语化用法倾向于民族主义的含义，许多人将“民族”理解为民族主义。然而，这个词仍然存在不可消除的模糊性。例如，人类学家和音乐学家仍然坚持“民族”指的是56个族群，并与大汉主义保持距离；从这个角度理解，“民族国家”指的是56民族的“公民国家”(civic nation)，不是德文中的（单一）民族国家（ethnic nation)。村庄音乐家则更可能对族群身份感兴趣，而不是民族主义中的中国全球霸权思维。

“民族”在学界的使用还有更多的含义。1989年，中国人类学家费孝通提出了一个在国内外广泛认可的“多元一体”理论，解释了汉族与少数民族在三千多年中的融合与区别，从而将“民族”的两个概念（nation， ethnicity）置于一个辩证的关系中，并通过他那句常被引用的话”你中有我，我中有你”来表达。更令人困惑的是，“民族”还用于“民族音乐学”一词中。但“民族音乐学”的“民族”在欧美民族音乐学语境中被解释为“人民”（ethnos）而不是“族群”（ethnic group)。(See Aga Zuoshi, “The ‘Minzu’ Conjecture: Anthropological Study of Ethnicity in Post-Mao China,” cArgo: Revue internationale d’anthropologie culturelle & sociale, no. 8 (2018): 83–108.)

使用“民族”的中国学者应该重新审视他们究竟想表达什么。

Six responses to East Asian music studies in the global North

1 East Asian music studies in the global North does not state its global North epistemic location.

An example of such a discussion would be one on stereotypes circulating in the global North—which is an important discussion; my point is that this discussion has a location. 

Also, there are certain global North habits of counterhegemony, e.g. avoiding oppression narratives. This is a matter of global North epistemic fashion that insists that heroic narratives give back agency to the oppressed; I would ask whether that is really the crux of the matter, as opposed to e.g. actually lobbying the Chinese government to stop human rights abuses? One can equally say that heroic narratives are disguising the real life issues at stake.

Another global North habit recently learnt from Kuan Hsing Chen is to regard attempts to decenter the West as itself being caught in the colonial loop. This argument works in some instances, especially in the epistemic realm where Asian references can be used instead. It does not however apply to historical, material, and cultural contexts of Western colonization. Decolonized countries can still view colonization as "60% good" (Singapore), and mentalities still need to be decolonized.

2 A focus on broad conceptual issues sometimes leads to over-generalization and lack of awareness of the limits of one's assertions.

An avowedly theoretical bent disengaged from case studies can lead to universalist methodological claims. See point 1.

3 Many East Asian, particularly Chinese, academics in East Asia itself do not have privilege to the extent construed.

Economic privilege does not apply to the vast majority of Chinese faculty who are poorly paid, and epistemic privilege does not apply if a conference is in a European language most of them do not understand and thus cannot participate in (not to mention that 45% of academic journals use English, while 7% use Chinese). There is also no cultural privilege; remember Asian hate in global North societies in general during COVID-19 ("Anti-Asian Hate And Fear Remain High In New York City"). 

A wide range of global North scholars refuse to see the common colonial context behind oppression of diasporic Asians and diasporic blacks. No one is claiming equivalency, but Chinese coolies as historical figures, who were designed by the British empire to replace enslaved Africans in the workforce, do not have privilege. No I am not claiming to have the same positionality as a Chinese coolie, although my grandfather could have been one. I am saying that Chinese coolies existed as a historical fact. 

Chinese privilege does apply if e.g. one is in the ethnic majority (i.e. in specifically China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Singapore), or in the upper class of fuerdai. Neither applies to Chinese diasporic intellectuals in the global North. It may be possible that some East Asian academics in the global North find their work is less impeded than those of other diasporic BIPOC or Indigenous colleagues because of uneven racism, but equally, uneven anti-racism means that East Asian issues are often ignored.

4 Question the exclusively Machiavellian view of China.

There is a strong tendency to receive all of Chinese history through the lens of post-2008 when the Chinese state began to be seen and to see itself as a global hegemon, using ethnonationalism at home as support for the state's global ambitions. But to apply this frame to all of China's past, viewing it as hegemonic and ethnonationalist throughout history is ahistorical and presentist. China was not hegemonic in 1937-45, and nationalism then was anticolonial and meant to counter Japanese imperialism. There are different contexts of nationalism: fascist nationalism on the rise in the global North, ethnonationalism in China, civic nationalism of 56 ethnicities in China, historical anticolonial nationalism, and the mistranslation of both ethnicity and nationalism to minzu, such that "nationalism" is used when sometimes what is meant is ethnic identity.

Franz Fanon distinguished between "national consciousness" of the masses, versus an exploitative "nationalism" of the local minority ruling elite, fanning nationalist passions to justify their rule, thereby extending colonial relationality in a way that is not responsive to the postcolonial nation state (even though cultural colonialism persists). The problem with the entire nation framework is that the modern, developmentalist nation state is a colonial legacy, in which minority national ruling elites often broker a continuation of asymmetrical global economic relations that originated under colonialism. Yet the nation as a framework is needed for historical contextualization because the colonized state could not have been captured except as a nation state, and because the occlusion of anticolonial nationalism results in the erasure of historical anticolonial resistance. 

Fanon's "national consciousness," while predicated on the form of the nation that was necessary for decolonization, is intended by Fanon to encompass an international anticolonial dimension of solidarity. Indeed, there were forms of Chinese anticolonial internationalism that were parallel to black internationalism. Some feel that Chinese anticolonial nationalism may be appropriated by the contemporary Chinese state, focusing on e.g. resistance against Japanese attacks on China in the Second Sino Japanese war, in order to fan nationalism as a means of justifying continued party rule. However, must the study of Chinese historical figures of anticolonial nationalism fleeing from war, for example, necessarily be bracketed within a recognition of contemporary nationalism that is fanned by the Communist Party? Where does our responsibility lie, with the objective study of history, or focusing selectively only on certain aspects of history that allow contemporary academics to position themselves against the contemporary Chinese state? Is it ok to conflate historical figures with historical narratives originating from the contemporary Chinese state?

5 Question the fallacy that non-hybridity equals nationalist.

It's very easy to do grandstanding on nationalism by emphasizing hybridity and circulation, thereby laying one's claim to counterhegemony, effectively branding queers, human rights lawyers, village musicians, Chinese pianists, and Chinese historical figures under Japanese attack from 1937-45 as problematically nationalist by default--for some people, anything other than hybridity and circulation is by definition nationalist. But just because something is not anti-nationalist doesn't make it nationalist. Human rights lawyers in China may not be engaged in the critique of nationalism because they are being jailed; that doesn't make them nationalist. Queer communities in China are busy hiding from surveillance; they have other things to worry about than opposing state nationalism. Treating minority communities as fodder for anti-nationalism is methodologically dubious and teleological (raising anti-nationalism above pressing issues on the ground). What we need to do is to assess contexts of nationalism, and make the appropriate critique.

6 There is lack of comprehensive knowledge about research and teaching inside East Asia.

One of the aims should be to enable scholars based in East Asia to develop counterhegemonic frameworks responsive to their epistemic contexts, and this requires comprehensive knowledge of research published in East Asian languages.

References

Lazarus, Neil. “Disavowing Decolonization: Fanon, Nationalism, and the Problematic of Representation in Current Theories of Colonial Discourse.” Research in African Literatures, vol. 24, no. 4, 1993, pp. 69–98. 

Sajed, Alina, & Seidel, Timothy. (2019). Introduction: Escaping the Nation? National Consciousness and the Horizons of Decolonization. Interventions, 21(5), 583–591.