Limitations of the O and A Levels Music Syllabi and Proposed Changes

Music education in Singapore has focused on Western canonic composers in the study of art music for Western performing forces, and traditional genres in the study of Asian musics. While these approaches are valuable, they overlook the dynamic nature of modern Asian music and the global perspectives that can enrich students’ understanding of music as a multifaceted cultural phenomenon. The following four essays explore why Singapore’s music syllabi should broaden to include not only local traditional Asian musics but also modern Asian and global genres beyond that of the local Chinese, Malay, and Indian populations.

These essays argue that broadening the music curriculum can address several limitations of the current syllabi, which often lack relevance to contemporary Asian cultures and reinforce a Eurocentric outlook. The essays make a case for understanding music in its social and historical contexts, recognizing the evolution of Asian identities in music, and fostering skills that prepare students for a global music landscape. 

(The following essays are auto-generated using ChatGPT and then edited, with an eye to adherence to the meaning I intend to convey. The reason for this is that I have a limited amount of time, and need to focus on research proper, but I feel that the commentary on the O and A level syllabi, which has retained weaknesses from 2015 when I left MOE, is necessary.)

1 Beyond CMIO

2 Beyond Formalism in Asian Music Teaching 

3 Beyond the "Traditional Musics Only" Model in Asian Music Teaching 

4 Beyond the Western Canon for Art Music Teaching 

Overview of Disadvantages of Current Music Syllabi 

1. Limited Relevance to Modern Asian Societies
   Traditional music-only in Asian music teaching feels outdated, failing to reflect contemporary culture and music students encounter daily.

2. Eurocentrism and Cultural Imbalance
   Emphasis on Western and not global composers in art music teaching reinforces a Eurocentric view, marginalizing Asian and global perspectives.

3. Narrow Skill Development
   The traditional music-only model in Asian music teaching fails to address modern techniques like electronic production, improvisation, and cross-genre composition, leaving students unprepared for contemporary careers in Asia.

4. Reduced Engagement with Contemporary Asian Identities
   Excluding modern Asian genres misses the dynamic transformation of modern Asian cultural identity in music, risking a stagnant view of Asian musical traditions.

5. Lack of Cross-Cultural Competency
   Limited exposure to hybrid and popular Asian genres restricts students' ability to engage with diverse musical styles and collaborate across Asia and globally.

Overview of Proposed Changes to Address These Disadvantages

1. Incorporate Modern Asian Music Genres
   Include popular Asian music (e.g., K-pop, J-pop) and modern art music from Asia, fostering cultural relevance and reflecting contemporary identities in the curriculum.

   • Impact: Enhances cultural relevance and engages students with music that incorporates Asian cultural elements they recognize, connecting their studies to everyday experiences.

2. Introduce Global Composers for Western Performing Forces
   Include works by Asian and other global composers who write for Western forces, blending Asian aesthetics with Western forms.

   • Impact: Balances the curriculum, addressing Eurocentrism and providing students with a nuanced view of how diverse cultural influences can coexist in modern music.

3. Expand Skills in Modern Asian Music Production and Composition
   Integrate training in skills relevant to modern Asian musics like electronic music production, popular songwriting, and digital composition, preparing students for varied music careers.

   • Impact: Broadens students' technical abilities, enabling them to adapt to a range of genres and professional contexts.

4. Encourage Ethnographic and Cultural Studies of Music
   Train students to study music in social and historical contexts, using ethnography to explore how modern genres reflect societal shifts.

   • Impact: Develops a well-rounded understanding of music’s cultural role, equipping students to see music as both art and cultural expression.

5. Enhance Cross-Cultural Collaboration Training
   Introduce collaborative projects and fusion genres, allowing students to explore creative connections across traditional and modern Asian musics.

   • Impact: Builds cross-cultural competency and prepares students for a global music landscape, making them more versatile and culturally aware musicians.

These changes encourage a more inclusive, relevant, and skill-diverse music education, better preparing Singaporean students for meaningful engagement with the modern music world.

Beyond the "Traditional Musics Only" Model in Asian Music Teaching within O and A Levels Curricula

Music education in Singapore often emphasizes traditional musics from local Asian ethnicities, honoring the cultural heritage of the nation’s diverse communities. However, focusing solely on traditional Asian music limits students’ understanding of the dynamic, evolving nature of Asian musical expressions. By including a broader range of modern Asian musics—such as popular genres and art music written for Western instruments—Singapore’s music education can offer a more comprehensive, relevant curriculum that prepares students for contemporary artistic contexts. Incorporating modern Asian musics enriches students’ musical literacy, reflects the changing nature of Asian identities, and fosters a well-rounded understanding of Asia’s diverse and vibrant music scene.

Disadvantages of Focusing Only on Traditional Musics

1. Limited Relevance to Contemporary Society and Culture
   Traditional Asian musics are invaluable, preserving cultural history and ethnic identities, yet they do not fully capture the realities and experiences of modern society. Today’s students are surrounded by a musical landscape that includes genres like K-pop, J-pop, Asian hip-hop, and Asian-inspired electronic music, as well as contemporary art music by Asian composers. A curriculum limited to traditional forms may feel outdated, disconnected from the music students encounter in their daily lives. Without exposure to modern genres, students may struggle to see the relevance of their musical education to contemporary Asian cultures.
   
2. Narrowed Perspective on the Transformation of Asian Musical Identities
   Asian music traditions have evolved over centuries, blending influences from within Asia and beyond. Focusing solely on traditional music can create a static view of Asian identities, suggesting that they are unchanging and disconnected from modern influences. By excluding modern genres, music education risks reinforcing outdated stereotypes, failing to represent the adaptability and diversity of Asian music today. For instance, popular Asian music genres often incorporate Western pop, jazz, and rock elements, while modern Asian art music composers draw on global influences, redefining what it means to be an “Asian” musician in the modern world.
   

The Benefits of Including Modern Asian Musics in the Curriculum

1. Reflecting Contemporary Asian Culture and Identity
   Modern Asian musics are powerful expressions of contemporary culture, capturing the concerns, aspirations, and identities of today’s Asian societies. K-pop, for instance, not only reflects Korean pop culture but also represents a larger Asian influence in the global music industry. Studying these genres gives students insights into the current social and cultural dynamics in Asia, from themes of globalization and technological influence to issues like gender representation and cultural pride. By understanding modern Asian music, students gain a more complete view of Asia’s changing cultural landscape.
   
2. Broadening Creative and Analytical Skills
   Exposure to both traditional and modern Asian musics fosters a broader skill set, allowing students to explore a variety of musical techniques and forms. Popular and art music genres often emphasize innovation, using unique production techniques, unconventional song structures, and varied rhythmic patterns. For example, Asian electronic music may incorporate traditional sounds in a modern context, while Asian art music often blends Asian aesthetics with Western orchestration. Learning to analyze and perform these genres challenges students’ creative boundaries, enabling them to think critically and innovatively as musicians.
   
3. Increasing Cultural Competency and Relevance
   Singapore is a multicultural society, and its students are likely to encounter a range of music styles throughout their lives. Familiarity with modern Asian music genres provides students with the cultural competency to engage with peers from different backgrounds, enhancing their global awareness. For instance, the increasing popularity of genres like J-pop and Asian hip-hop across Asia and beyond highlights the importance of cultural adaptability. By understanding these genres, students can connect more effectively with global audiences, making their skills more relevant in a diverse and interconnected music industry.
   
4. Preparation for Contemporary Music Careers
   A curriculum that includes modern Asian musics better prepares students for a wide range of career opportunities. Many of today’s music-related careers require proficiency in contemporary genres, including work in the entertainment industry, digital media, and international music festivals. Skills in popular music production, songwriting, and cross-cultural music collaboration are increasingly in demand. Including modern Asian musics in the curriculum ensures that students are prepared for the demands of a modern music career, making them versatile and competitive musicians on a global scale.
   

Conclusion

Incorporating modern Asian musics into Singapore’s music curriculum offers students a richer, more relevant education that reflects the realities of today’s world. While traditional music is crucial for preserving cultural heritage, a sole focus on it limits students’ understanding of contemporary Asian identities and the evolving nature of music. By embracing a broader range of modern Asian musics, Singapore’s music education can equip students with the skills, knowledge, and cultural awareness needed to thrive as musicians in a globalized, multicultural society. For Singaporean students, this inclusive approach to music education will not only broaden their perspectives but also foster a deeper appreciation for the dynamic, interconnected world of Asian music today.

Beyond the Western Canon for Art Music Teaching in O and A Levels Curricula

Music education in Singapore focuses on Western composers for the topics focusing on “art” music for Western performing forces, focusing heavily on composers from Europe and North America. While the study of this repertoire has its benefits, limiting students to this canon can create a narrow perspective on music’s diverse cultural heritage. Instead, incorporating works by Asian and other global composers who write for Western performing forces would broaden students’ understanding, promoting a more balanced and inclusive view of music. This approach not only reflects Singapore’s multicultural identity but also enhances students’ creative and analytical skills by exposing them to unique cultural influences and perspectives.

Disadvantages of Focusing Mainly on Western Composers

1. Reinforcement of Eurocentrism in Music Education
   A curriculum dominated by Western composers reinforces Eurocentrism, implicitly suggesting that European and North American composers set the standard for musical excellence. This bias marginalizes non-Western perspectives, positioning them as secondary or peripheral. Consequently, students may develop an unbalanced view of music history and theory, perceiving Western contributions as the pinnacle of musical achievement. This skewed perspective is particularly limiting in Singapore, a country with deep cultural ties across Asia and a population that values diversity.
   
2. Limited Exposure to Cultural Innovation and Diversity
   Western composers often draw upon a shared heritage of European harmonies, structures, and performance practices. While these are valuable, they do not represent the full spectrum of musical expression found around the world. By focusing solely on these composers, students miss out on the innovative ways global composers integrate unique cultural elements into compositions for Western instruments. For example, the works of Japanese composer Toru Takemitsu offers a fresh perspective on rhythm, melody, and instrumentation that reflects his cultural roots. This diversity enhances students’ creative potential, offering them a broader toolkit for expression and composition.
   
3. Narrowed Understanding of Contemporary Musical Practices
   Many Western music curricula emphasize Western composers from the Baroque, Classical, and Romantic periods, which limits students’ exposure to global composers from 18th-century Afro French composer Joseph Bologne to contemporary Asian composers. By studying mainly Western composers, students may struggle to relate to or recognize the relevance of art music in global contexts. In contrast, exploring global composers offers insights into how music can address and reflect global concerns, broadening students' analytical skills and helping them see music as a living global art form.
   

Benefits of Studying Asian and Global Composers for Western Performing Forces

1. Cultural Bridging Through Familiar Mediums
   When Asian and other global composers write for Western orchestras or ensembles, they create a bridge between cultures, incorporating traditional musics. For example, Indonesian composer I Wayan Gde Yudane incorporates gamelan influences into Western compositions, introducing students to Southeast Asian musical idioms within a familiar orchestral structure.
   
2. Increased Creative and Analytical Skills
   Composers from different cultures bring unique approaches to structure, harmony, and rhythm, challenging students to think beyond Western conventions. For example, Japanese composer Dai Fujikura’s works often reflect Japanese aesthetic principles, such as “ma” (the beauty of empty space). Engaging with these diverse approaches enhances students' analytical skills, as they learn to identify and appreciate the creative decisions that reflect different cultural values and philosophies. This exposure ultimately fosters a more adaptable, innovative approach to music.
   
3. Encouragement of Cross-Cultural Collaboration and Innovation
   Singapore is a global city with a rich cultural blend, and its music students are likely to collaborate with artists from various backgrounds. By studying Asian and global composers, students become familiar with different musical traditions and are better prepared for collaborative, cross-cultural work. This familiarity with diverse cultural practices not only fosters respect and understanding but also enhances students' capacity for innovation, as they learn to draw on various cultural resources to create new, original works. In a globalized music industry, this adaptability is a significant advantage.
   
4. Developing a Well-Rounded Global Perspective in Music
   Studying global composers who write for Western performing forces allows students to transcend cultural boundaries. This global perspective is especially valuable in a multicultural society like Singapore, where diverse cultural narratives coexist and interact. Exposure to global composers helps students understand that Western instruments and forms are not exclusive to Western composers but are tools that can communicate a wide range of cultural experiences and expressions. This perspective not only enriches their musical education but also broadens their worldview, fostering a sense of interconnectedness and shared humanity.
   

Conclusion

By incorporating the works of Asian and other global composers who write for Western performing forces, Singapore’s music education can cultivate a richer, more inclusive understanding of music. Focusing solely on Western composers limits students' exposure to the diversity and innovation found in global musical traditions, reinforcing Eurocentrism and potentially alienating students from their own cultural heritage. Expanding the curriculum to include global voices bridges cultural gaps, enhances students' creative and analytical skills, and prepares them for meaningful collaboration in a globalized world. For Singaporean music students, a well-rounded education that embraces the contributions of global composers offers a path toward a more informed, inclusive, and culturally relevant musical experience.

Beyond Formalism in Asian Music Teaching in O and A Levels Curricula

Music is a dynamic form of cultural expression that reflects the beliefs, values, and histories of its communities. For music students in Singapore, studying Asian music traditions without fully understanding their social and historical context can lead to a shallow interpretation that misses the broader meanings embedded within these traditions. By focusing solely on musical structure—analyzing scales, rhythms, and melodies through recordings—students risk reducing music to a mere arrangement of sounds, overlooking its cultural depth. Learning to think about music within its social and historical frameworks can deepen students’ understanding of the art form, with ethnography serving as a powerful tool to instill this contextual awareness.

Disadvantages of Focusing Solely on Musical Structure

1. Missed Cultural Nuance and Contextual Meaning
   When students focus only on musical structure, they miss the cultural and symbolic meanings that enrich the music. For instance, certain musical forms and practices in Asian traditions are inseparable from the ceremonies, rituals, or community events they accompany. Without contextual knowledge, students may not appreciate how a particular scale or rhythmic pattern is linked to a community’s beliefs or social hierarchy. This narrow approach limits students' capacity to fully engage with music as a mode of cultural expression.
   
2. Limited Understanding of Musical Purpose and Function
   Many Asian music forms serve specific social functions—whether celebrating a festival, marking rites of passage, or even facilitating healing. Structural analysis alone does not reveal these functions, so students may view music as a static product rather than an active, living tradition with distinct roles in society. As a result, they may overlook how music shapes, and is shaped by, the people who perform it and the occasions it accompanies.
   
3. Detachment from Music’s Transformation and Historical Background
   Every musical form has evolved in response to social and historical changes. For instance, gamelan music from Indonesia reflects both ancient spiritual practices and later influences from colonial history. By focusing solely on sound, students miss these historical layers and fail to grasp how music adapts and changes in response to external forces. This limited perspective risks fostering an incomplete understanding of music’s adaptability and resilience in preserving cultural identity.
   
4. Reduced Analytical Skills for Cross-Cultural Understanding
   Music is a powerful tool for intercultural understanding, but without learning its social and historical context, students may lack the ability to draw connections between different musical traditions. An approach focused solely on structure reduces music to technical elements, making it challenging for students to appreciate the parallels and contrasts between diverse musical traditions.
   

The Role of Ethnography in Inculcating Social and Historical Thinking

Ethnography, the systematic study of people and cultures through observation and participation, is an invaluable method for music students to explore the context of the music they study. Ethnographic training encourages students to go beyond sound analysis, prompting them to consider the people, places, and purposes behind each musical tradition. Through ethnography, students can develop a nuanced understanding of music that includes both its structural elements and its sociocultural dimensions.

1. Observation and Immersion in Real-Life Contexts
   Ethnography teaches students to observe music in its natural setting—such as community festivals, religious ceremonies, or informal gatherings—rather than in isolation from its cultural environment. By immersing themselves in these contexts, students can observe how music interacts with social dynamics, such as how particular groups respond to performances, how traditions are passed down, and how societal values influence musical interpretation. This experiential learning approach helps students appreciate music’s multifaceted role within a community, fostering a deeper understanding than structural analysis alone can provide.
   
2. Interviews and Participant Observation for Contextual Insight
   Engaging in ethnographic interviews with musicians, listeners, and cultural custodians helps students understand the motivations, beliefs, and challenges faced by those involved in a musical tradition. For example, a student studying Chinese opera might learn from a practitioner how modernization and changing social norms are affecting its traditional forms and functions. These firsthand insights help students understand that music is not just an art form but also a reflection of societal change, allowing them to connect the past with the present.
   
3. Development of Empathy and Cross-Cultural Sensitivity
   Ethnographic training promotes empathy by encouraging students to consider music from the perspectives of its practitioners and audiences. This practice nurtures cross-cultural sensitivity, as students learn to appreciate and respect different value systems, beliefs, and expressions embodied in music. Such empathy is vital for students in a multicultural setting like Singapore, where diverse cultures coexist and interact. It prepares them to engage respectfully and meaningfully with musical traditions outside their own.
   

Conclusion

While structural analysis remains an essential part of music education, it is incomplete without an understanding of the social and historical contexts that shape musical traditions. Singaporean music students who study Asian music through a purely structural lens risk overlooking the rich cultural meanings and historical narratives embedded within these traditions. By adopting an ethnographic approach, they can gain deeper insights into the societal and historical forces influencing music, fostering a well-rounded appreciation of its role in human culture. Ethnography not only enriches students’ understanding of music but also prepares them to become sensitive, informed, and globally aware musicians capable of engaging with the world’s diverse musical heritage.

Beyond CMIO in O and A Levels Music

In an increasingly globalized world, music serves as a powerful bridge, connecting cultures and fostering understanding among diverse groups. For music students in Singapore, a nation known for its multicultural heritage and global outlook, studying only local Asian music traditions could restrict their potential for personal growth and limit their ability to engage with the broader musical landscape. A comprehensive education that includes world music not only broadens students’ perspectives but also equips them to understand and appreciate diverse global viewpoints, making them more versatile musicians and culturally aware individuals.

Benefits of a Broader Musical Education

1. Cultural Awareness and Empathy
   Engaging with a wide array of musical traditions helps students develop a deep understanding and appreciation for the diversity of human expression. By studying world music, students encounter a spectrum of cultural contexts, artistic techniques, and philosophical concepts behind various musical practices. This cultural awareness fosters empathy, as students learn about the social, historical, and political backgrounds that shape musical traditions worldwide.
   
2. Enhanced Musical Skill and Creativity
   Exposure to diverse musical systems, scales, rhythms, and improvisational styles expands students' technical and creative capabilities. For instance, learning the complex rhythmic structures of African drumming, the modal systems of Middle Eastern music, or the unique tuning systems of Indonesian gamelan can inspire innovative approaches in students' own musical creations. This versatility strengthens their technical foundation and encourages creative synthesis across genres, setting them apart as adaptable and innovative musicians.
   
3. Preparation for a Global Career
   As Singapore is a hub for international business and the arts, many music students will likely engage with global audiences or pursue careers that involve collaboration across cultures. Knowledge of world music positions them to connect more meaningfully with international peers and audiences, increasing their employability and enriching their professional lives. Without this broader exposure, students may find themselves unprepared to understand or effectively engage with global musical contexts.
   

Disadvantages of Focusing Solely on Local Asian Music

1. Limited Perspective on Cultural Expression
   While Singapore's local Asian music traditions are undeniably rich and valuable, a sole focus on these traditions risks creating a narrow view of music. Local musics, such as Chinese, Malay, and Indian traditions, offer deep insights but only reflect a fraction of the world’s diverse musical landscape. Without a broader perspective, students may come to view music through a limited lens, potentially reinforcing ethnocentric views and reducing their ability to appreciate music as a global phenomenon.
   
2. Missed Opportunities for Creative Growth
   Restricting studies to local music traditions can limit students' exposure to alternative musical practices that spark creative growth. In an age where musical fusion and innovation drive the arts, a narrow focus on local and not other global traditional musics may stifle students' creative potential.
   
3. Reduced Flexibility and Adaptability in a Globalized World
   Musicians today often find themselves collaborating with artists from different cultures and backgrounds. Students who have only studied local Asian musics may lack the adaptability and openness required to engage successfully in such environments. This limitation could hinder their ability to navigate diverse cultural contexts, reducing their effectiveness as communicators and collaborators in a globalized arts scene.
   
4. Risk of Stagnation in Music Education
   By not integrating world music into the curriculum, Singaporean music education risks becoming stagnant. Music is an evolving art form, and studying a diverse range of traditional musics encourages educational institutions to innovate and stay relevant. Without this global outlook, music education may fall behind international standards, limiting students' competitiveness and potentially discouraging them from pursuing music as a lifelong career.
   

Conclusion

While local Asian music traditions are an essential part of Singapore’s cultural identity and musical education, an exclusively local focus limits students’ potential in an interconnected world. By embracing a curriculum that includes global traditional musics, Singaporean music students can develop a richer, more balanced understanding of music, honing skills that prepare them for global careers and enabling them to foster cross-cultural appreciation and empathy. In a world where boundaries are increasingly blurred, a global perspective on music is not only beneficial but essential, equipping students to become versatile, thoughtful, and culturally aware musicians capable of bridging divides and celebrating diversity. 

Arguing that there is no "East versus West" amounts to Color Blindness over Black versus White

[ChatGPT prompt: Write an essay explaining why arguing that there is no east versus west, is the same as arguing that there is no black and white racial identities. It is important to recognize the asymmetry between the two pairs of terms whereby one side is privileged both historically and in the present and linked to the colonialism of the past, whereas the other is underprivileged both historically and in the present and linked to the formerly colonized, who is often at risk of neocolonialism. The erasure of difference, while well intended in that it's meant to counter stereotypes, actually ends up erasing that very real material difference of cultural asymmetry, and therefore is a denial of colonialism and neocolonialism. Just because the east has been the target stereotyping doesn't mean that it is not a meaningful, internally-diverse cultural assemblage today, just as black stereotypes doesn't mean that there is no collective of black identities. Similarly just because the so-called west is a broad category, doesn't mean that it fails to pertain to a group of people who enjoy common advantages; the broadness of the category of white people doesn't mean that there's no such thing as white people.]

Arguing that there is no distinction between "East versus West" is conceptually similar to arguing that there is no distinction between "Black versus White" in racial identities. Both arguments, while potentially rooted in a desire to challenge stereotypes and promote equality, ultimately erase the historical and present-day asymmetry between privileged and underprivileged groups. These erasures deny the cultural, political, and material impacts of colonialism and neocolonialism that continue to shape the lives and identities of people today.

The relationship between East and West, much like the relationship between Black and White, is not merely a set of abstract categories, but is historically rooted in structures of power and domination. The West, particularly in the form of European empires and later the United States, historically occupied the position of the colonizer. Through colonialism, the West exerted control over large portions of the world, particularly in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. This history created material differences in wealth, power, and cultural dominance that persist to this day. The East, on the other hand, was often relegated to the position of the colonized or the "other," its people seen as exotic or inferior, and its resources exploited.

Similarly, the racial divide between Black and White is not simply a social construct, but one deeply rooted in historical processes of slavery, segregation, and systemic racism. White people, particularly in the West, have historically occupied positions of privilege and power, whereas Black people have often been marginalized, oppressed, and excluded. These racial dynamics were also shaped by colonialism, which created a racial hierarchy that placed Europeans and their descendants at the top.

To argue that these categories no longer matter or should be erased misses the deep historical and material differences between them. The West is not just a geographic label but a set of cultural and political structures that continue to shape global power relations. Western countries continue to enjoy significant economic and military advantages, as well as cultural hegemony, through media, education, and international institutions. This power dynamic is mirrored in racial relations, where whiteness has historically been associated with privilege, while Blackness has been linked to subjugation.

Erasing these differences, while seemingly promoting equality, risks denying the very real consequences of colonialism and neocolonialism. Neocolonialism refers to the ongoing economic and political dominance of former colonial powers over their former colonies. Many countries in the Global South, particularly in Africa and Asia, continue to experience the consequences of colonialism through economic dependency, debt, and political instability. Similarly, Black people, particularly in Western societies, continue to face systemic racism, economic inequality, and social marginalization, despite efforts toward racial equality.

The argument that there is no East versus West or Black versus White overlooks the fact that these categories are not only about stereotypes but also about power. While the East has often been the target of stereotyping and cultural exoticization, it remains a meaningful cultural and political entity. Eastern societies, such as China, Japan, and India, have distinct histories, traditions, and contributions to global civilization. To erase the East-West distinction is to erase these rich cultural legacies, as well as the ongoing struggles of Eastern countries to assert their sovereignty in a world still dominated by Western powers.

Similarly, while Black people have been subjected to harmful stereotypes, Black identities remain a powerful and meaningful aspect of the global cultural and political landscape. From the African diaspora to movements for Black liberation and empowerment, Blackness is not a monolith but a vibrant and diverse set of experiences and identities. To argue that there is no such thing as Black or White risks erasing the ongoing struggles for racial justice, as well as the distinct cultural contributions of Black communities.

In both cases, erasing difference is a denial of history and of the present realities of inequality. Just because the category of "East" is broad and has been the subject of stereotyping does not mean it fails to represent a meaningful cultural and political assemblage. Similarly, just because the category of "West" is broad does not mean it fails to represent a group of people who enjoy common advantages rooted in colonialism and continued dominance.

The same holds true for racial categories. Just because "White" is a broad category encompassing people from various European backgrounds does not mean that whiteness is not a real social identity associated with privilege. The broadness of the category of "White" does not negate the fact that White people, particularly in Western societies, enjoy systemic advantages. Likewise, the diversity of Black identities does not mean that there are no such things as Black people or that Blackness has no meaning in the fight against racism and the quest for justice.

In conclusion, arguing that there is no East versus West, or no Black versus White, erases the historical and material differences that continue to shape global power dynamics and racial identities. While such arguments may be well-intentioned in their efforts to challenge stereotypes, they ultimately deny the ongoing legacies of colonialism, neocolonialism, and systemic racism. Recognizing these differences is essential to addressing inequality and fostering genuine understanding across cultural and racial divides.